Ann. occup. Hyg., Vol. 47, No. 7, pp. 541-547, 2003
© 2003 British Occupational Hygiene Society
Published by Oxford University Press
Solbase: A Databank of Solutions for Occupational Hazards and Risks
1 Safety Science Group, Delft University of Technology, PO Box 5015, NL-2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands; 2 Sheila Pantry Associates, Sheffield, UK
Received 28 January 2003; in final form 19 February 2003
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT SOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Several attempts have been made to develop strategies for an effective control of workplace hazards. This paper will focus on the results of a European project called Solbase, which is a databank for solutions to occupational hazards and risks. The Safety Science Group of Delft University of Technology in collaboration with TNO Work and Organisation (formerly NIA-TNO) designed Solbase in a series of projects funded by the Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment and the European Commission. It consists of the design of and software for a databank with an intelligent navigation system allowing users two principal entry points, which correspond to two basic types of solutions. The first entry point is based on the production process, subdivided into the production principle and production function. This entry point provides the dissemination of solutions within and between branches of industry. The second entry point includes the hazard and its emission and transmission as an access point for more conventional occupational hygiene control measures. With the partners of the consortium, from Spain, Italy, Ireland, Germany, the UK and The Netherlands, 535 new and existing solutions throughout Europe and the world were gathered to test the software and the solutions during a field study. Despite the relatively small number of ‘test solutions’ used, 54% of the search actions in the field study resulted in a useful and suitable solution which the company could actually put into practice. The companies characterized the software as very user friendly. The reproducibility of the coding system for solutions, the classification tree, was satisfactory. Most coders chose the same keywords from the classification tree to describe a corresponding solution. Solbase is a good searching machine for workplace solutions. Especially, the classification of production processes is an inherent guarantee of an exchange of information across the borders of a specific company or branch of industry.
Keywords: data bank; solutions; control measures in production processes
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SOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICES |
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TOPABSTRACTSOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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The call for successful solutions to workplace problems and the power of actual examples with a proven application in reducing the effects of occupational safety and health problems are not new. The annual reports of the British Factory Inspectorate for the years 1884 and 1886 contained all sorts of examples of machine guarding and other ingenious devices to prevent accidents (Hale, 1978). The collection of such solutions in separate publications or databases with the aim of disseminating the information is of more recent date. Revised national laws on occupational safety and health and regulations to control exposure to hazardous substances, which were introduced in various western countries in the late 1970s and 1980s, created a climate favourable to these initiatives. The 1974 Swedish Miljøbanken (Working Environment Bank) and the 1983 UK Health & Safety Executive (HSE) Noise Control Solutions were among the first initiatives. Later, similar initiatives were taken in Australia, Canada, the USA, Italy and The Netherlands, some making use of the advantages of electronic media (Swuste and Hale, 1994). These initiatives, which addressed a range of different occupational safety and health problems, provide descriptive and condensed information on solutions averaging 2–4 pages in length. Generally, they include a graphic presentation of the solution and are primarily aimed at an audience with a limited training in occupational safety and health. The main aim of the information provided is to stimulate creativity amongst user groups rather than providing detailed and worked out solutions to be implemented immediately. The aim is to get users to pick up principles and ideas and adopt them to their own situations and needs.
The need to exchange information on preventive measures stemmed from the observation that many solutions to prevent occupational hazards known in one company or industry are neither known nor applied in other comparable companies or industries. Small and medium sized enterprises and companies in less industrially advanced sectors particularly fall into this category. In these sectors control technology is desperately needed, because the experience, time and incentive to develop control solutions is often lacking. Solutions often do exist; the problem is finding them and conveying the information to potential users in an accessible form (Swuste and Buringh, 1994). Following these lines, the European Agency in Bilbao has recently initiated the collection of case histories or best practices throughout European small and medium sized industries (Bilbao workshop: European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2000). However, this initiative is limited to collection of materials and lacks a coding and intelligent search interface to help users locate relevant solutions to their problems.
In a study focused on small and medium sized industries, the British HSE came to a worrying conclusion. Despite all the publicity and guidance produced, a vast majority of these companies did not understand exposure limits and subsequent control policies for hazardous substances (Ogden, 1998; Topping et al., 1998). A risk assessment based on exposure measurements and leading to control measures and solutions was far too difficult and too costly for most companies. The customs and practices within the branch of industry, the so called ‘state of the industry’, was found to be dominant and to guide the choice of solutions in individual companies much more than any result of a risk assessment. As a consequence, HSE has developed a ‘control banding’ system under the name of COSHH Essentials. In this system the quantitative risk assessment is replaced by a qualitative assessment, based on the toxicological information to be found in the so-called ‘risk phrases’, provided by suppliers of chemicals, in combination with the amounts of chemicals used and their ability to become airborne. The risk assessment leads to a risk profile and four main categories of solutions or control strategies. The first category consist of various forms of general ventilation, the second of various engineering controls like local exhaust ventilation or cooling coils for vapours and the third category covers containment and enclosure. The last category is a special one, ‘call the expert’ (Brooke, 1998; Maidment, 1998; Russel et al., 1998). The control banding approach also uses the so-called ‘Control Guidance Sheets’. These sheets explain the information on control measures in a similar format as in the countries mentioned above. The COSHH Essentials has met some criticism in the literature, focusing on the lack of a proper evaluation before its introduction into the occupational arena, as well as the generic nature of the tool, which will lacks precision and accuracy in situations where these are required (Kromhout, 2002).
Controlling exposure and choosing solutions for various occupational hazards and risks is not only an issue in established market economies, but even more so in developing countries. Here the supra-national organizations like the International Labour Office (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have taken initiatives. The ILO publication of low cost ways to improve working conditions for the Asian region is an example, where the condensed and graphical format of the western solution databanks was used (Kogi et al., 1989). Also, the African region has demonstrated the use of small workshops to exchange solutions (Muchiri, 1995). The WHO started a programme under the acronym of PACE, Prevention and Control Exchange, in collaboration with the International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA) (Swuste et al., 1995). This programme has already resulted in a steady output of materials. A document for decision makers was produced (WHO, 1995) together with video material on exposure and controls (Rosen, 1995). Next, materials on hazards which are present in a great number of workplaces and their control, i.e. noise control (WHO, 1998) and the control of airborne dust (WHO, 1999), were published. These documents contain basic information on the hazards and easily accessible examples of controls. More recently, the incorporation of preventive strategies on occupational health and hygiene issues into public health policies was stressed for the Healthy Cities Projects of the Sub-Saharan region (Swuste and Eijkemans, 2002).
All the initiatives mentioned above collect, in one way or another, easily accessible information on solutions and control measures. However, in existing databanks of solutions or hard copy versions only a very crude form of coding was used to retrieve solutions (Swuste and Hale, 1994). This does not seem to be a problem if the number of solutions present does not exceed the hundreds; the user can leaf through the material until something catches his eye. However, with one order of magnitude more solutions, a number which has already been reached if we pool all the available solutions in existing databanks, a more sophisticated navigation system is needed. This article will discuss the navigation system designed for the Solbase project, the tests conducted on the robustness of the navigation system and the selection criteria for solutions to become included into a bank
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INTELLIGENT NAVIGATION |
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TOPABSTRACTSOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Intelligent searching in a databank requires reasoning by analogy and a navigation system needs to guide a user to any solution which is stored in the bank which could be relevant to his technology, activity and hazard, including solutions developed beyond their own industries. Furthermore, the databank should provide guidance to preferred solutions. It is generally accepted that solutions ‘at source’ are more efficient than the so-called add-on or retrofit control measures. Such a preferred order is required by law in a number of countries, as for instance in the 1998 Working Environment Act of The Netherlands. These principles provided the starting point of a project financed by the Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment and resulted in a system design for an intelligent navigation system and a solution databank (Swuste and Hale, 1992; Hale et al., 1994). Later, the European Commission continued the project under the name of Solbase and a prototype software of the solution databank was developed (Tijmensen, 1994) and filled with 535 solutions, a number great enough to conduct a number of tests to prove the validity of the system design. The tests and the collection of solutions were conducted by a consortium from The Netherlands, UK, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Germany (Tönissen et al., 1998).
For the Solbase solution databank three groups of users were defined. First of all the experts in occupational safety and health (the occupational hygienist and the safety professionals). Secondly, designers and engineers who have only a moderate training or only practical experience in the field. This group is responsible for the design of equipment, plant or workplace, such as manufacturers, consultants and technical services in a company. The last group of users were the safety representatives in companies, either related to unions or company safety and health committees.
Among these groups, different strategies were found for searching for relevant solutions. Health and safety professionals mainly used hazard as a starting point. They explored possible sources and routes of transmission, so that they could intervene and reduce them. Designers and technical service engineers started with the process or machine and tried to find out from the manufacturer or others using it how they should improve it or change it to gain better control of risks whilst still achieving the primary function of the process. Finally, users started with a possible type of solution and explored around that. All of these starting points, but particularly the first two, are valuable and produce different insights. The navigation systems as designed included all three entries and encourage users to navigate between them.
In the study leading to the design, it was noticed that most people searched for solutions in a very narrow way. They only considered machines, processes and preventive measures very like their own and did not look over the boundary into other industries using similar processes, let alone to other countries. Clearly a navigation system needed to broaden the scope of possible solutions presented to the user and help him abstract his thinking to a more generic, functional level.
The bases for the navigation system are the classification systems to describe the three points of entry, hazard, process and solution, in combination with a set of intelligent questions to guide a user outside his or her traditional searching routine. The classification for hazards and for preventive measure was rather easily found. There are plenty of models in occupational safety and hygiene which classify the way a given hazard arises and comes into contact with the eventual victim; each step in this process implies a different sort of preventive measure or solution.
The classification of the production process was much more complicated. Technologies from different sorts of industries with the same hazard had to be grouped together, so that preventive measures taken for one process are relevant as preventive measures for another in the same class. However, different technologies which produce the same end result, i.e. which have the same function, such as ‘mixing materials’ or coating material surfaces, also had to be classified. This allows a user to choose to replace one technology with another having the same function in order to lower the level of danger. To combine these two requirements a system was used which designers have developed for design analysis and for guiding the design process (Fig. 1). The classification starts with the production function, the core activity or unit operation and describes what is, or has to be, achieved.
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Second in order is the production principle, the process or technology necessary to achieve the production function. The production principle also includes the operational control method. This method can be direct (manual or mechanically driven) or indirect (remote controlled or automated) and basically determines the distance of an operator from a given hazard. This distance is short in the case of a direct method and increases considerably for indirect methods. The production form represents the lowest level. The production form is the actual machine, installation, tool or equipment, including the intrinsic or add-on control measures.
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EXAMPLE |
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TOPABSTRACTSOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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The design analysis can be clarified with an example from the construction industry. This concerns a process made necessary by the waterlogged nature of Dutch soil, in which armoured concrete piles are driven into the soil to bear the weight of the buildings. To connect the tops of these piles to the rest of the foundation, the reinforcement rods in the heads have to be laid bare. Normally the concrete of the head of the piles is removed using a pneumatic drill. The production form in this example, the actual design, is a drill, with a weight of between 13 and 15 kg. Possible control measures applied can be a buffer ring on the drill to partially insulate the handle, a lower working pressure or personal protective equipment like gloves and protective glasses. The production principle is ‘impact breaking’ (engineering principle), combined with a pneumatic motive power and a ‘direct’ operational control method. The unit operation, or production function, can be defined as ‘removing concrete’. Quite a few publications have stressed the hazards and risks involved in these drilling operations as well as the limited success of applying solutions to reduce, for instance, the level of hand–arm vibration (see for example Swuste et al., 1997). All these solutions, like the buffer ring and a reduced working pressure, interfere directly with the functional pneumatic energy of the impact tool and will reduce its effectiveness. Therefore, these control measures are not very popular.
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PRODUCTION PRINCIPLES |
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TOPABSTRACTSOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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In the case of the pneumatic drill it is obvious that all the risks, like high exposure to dust, noise, hand–arm vibration and physical workload, will manifest themselves at the level of this production form. The hazards on the other hand almost all originate from the production principle. The combination of a direct operational control method with a pneumatic motive power inevitably leads to a high noise level. The same is true for the exposure to hand–arm vibration and to dust using the principle of impact breaking with direct operational control. This means we should look for solutions, in the case of unacceptably high risks, by changing the production principle, or even the production function. The engineering principle of impact breaking can be altered to a static force with a hydraulic motive power and an indirect operational control method. This leads to the production form of a hydraulic pile cracker, which is operational. However, even the production function of removing concrete can be abandoned, if the concrete of foundation piles is poured directly and accurately into holes made in the ground, leaving the tops of the rods free. This means that all the hazards and risks deriving from the original production function will be eliminated.
A second advantage in applying the design analysis as a classification system is that it provides a general description of production functions and production principles. The present limited exchange of solutions between companies and between sectors or branches of industry has its origin in the search pattern applied. It is obvious that a user of a solution databank starts at the production form. A production form is branch or sector specific, after all it describes the actual machine or installation. If we move up to the production principle or even the production function we disconnect from a specific process or industry and broaden the perspective of choice. An intelligent navigation system will lead a user of the databank from the production form to the higher levels of the design analysis and will open a complete range of solutions with examples from neighbouring or other branches of industry.
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TEST RESULTS OF SOLBASE |
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TOPABSTRACTSOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Before filling the databank with solutions, criteria were developed for solutions to be entered into the databank. With Arbouw in Amsterdam, an expert centre for the Dutch construction industry, a total of 19 different questions were formulated and tested in order to score the solutions offered and to avoid potential overlap between solutions (Table 1).
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These questions are divided into key questions, questions on the quality of the solution and questions on additional information. Each question has three possible answers: yes, no and more information required. To be entered in the database the minimum requirement for solutions was a yes answer to all key questions and at least five yes answers to the quality questions.
An electronic version of the navigation system was developed. In a combined project with our consortium partners, 535 new and existing solutions in and outside Europe were gathered to test the software and the solutions during a field study. Selection of the solution was based on questions very similar to those developed by Arbouw. The solutions were limited to five well-defined areas of hazards (noise; vibrations; chemical substances; physical workloads; slip, trip and falls) and six branches of industry (construction; rubber manufacturing; food; metal; textile; chemical processing).
Of these 535 solutions, 30 were selected to run in a test of intercoder reliability. Two independent coders from different organizations and countries of the consortium coded each solution. The coders had a general training in occupational safety and health. For 10 solutions no difference in coding between coders was observed. For the remaining 20 solutions the difference between coders was limited to a small number of items. The main difference occurred in the classification of the type of hazard (three times) and the type of process carried out (14 times).
Differences in hazard classification were a bit surprising, but understandable if we consider that, for example in the case of impact breaking, more than one hazard is present. It looks like a matter of linguistics to prevent these types of coding differences. The difference in coding of the type of process could have severe consequences during retrieval of the solution if it resulted in major differences, but this was not the case.
Table 2 shows a tiny part of the process classification (Swuste, 1996). The production function ‘Processing operations’ is divided into four different layers of production principles. The misclassification occurred in the third layer of the classification, meaning the effects on retrieval would be limited. A difference in the first layer would be dramatic. In general, we concluded that this survey showed a high enough level of agreement between the coders. The interaction of (multilingual) classifying, coding and searching of solutions can be considered as very innovative.
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A second test was performed in Ireland, where 24 sessions were held, addressing workplace problems of various industries in the Waterford area. The sessions were restricted to the hazards, risks and industries of the 535 pilot solutions. The items addressed during the sessions ranged from noise problems at a bowl chopper in a meat processing firm, to asbestos exposure during brake lining removal in a car repair shop, to safety risks on construction sites due to working at heights. In 18 of these sessions the databank provided information which was considered useful. This meant that although a solution was not necessarily presented, the questions during the navigation provided a useful direction for a solution. During 13 sessions a relevant solution was actually present, lying within the skills of the company to implement the solution (Tönissen et al., 1998).
To turn the database into a mature product the number of solutions in the database has to be extended to at least 5000. The fieldwork in the project showed that a decentralized system of collecting solutions is feasible and a central maintenance of the system is advised. Implementation now depends on the arrangement of finance and the will of relevant funding or European bodies to commit themselves to using and stimulating such a database.
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CONCLUSIONS |
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TOPABSTRACTSOLUTIONS AND BEST PRACTICESINTELLIGENT NAVIGATIONEXAMPLEPRODUCTION PRINCIPLESTEST RESULTS OF SOLBASECONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Starting from a very simple idea, making existing solutions easily available to people in small companies, the answer has proved to be rather complicated. After deciding to build some intelligent help for the user to find relevant solutions, rather than just relying on browsing, serendipity and the limited expertise to use keywords, some fundamental questions popped up.
How to make a systematic and exhaustive survey of the potential solutions for a given problem?
How to recognize what is relevant from other people’s experience in order to learn?
What are analogous solutions in health and safety?
Existing models in the field of occupational safety and hygiene proved to be useful, but were not worked out systematically enough. This was particularly true for the classification of production processes to link them to hazards. The navigation system developed consists of a classification system and a set of questions and answers which will lead the user from a given problem to those solutions present in the databank which will be seen to be relevant and useful and will stimulate the necessary creative thinking to adapt or devise a solution for the problem at hand.
In particular, the classification of production principles and functions can address the above questions and has some major advantages. First of all the numbers. Whereas a couple of million different production forms are present, changing every year, the vast majority of industrial processes can be described by 10 different production functions and around 400 different production principles (Swuste, 1996). A second advantage is the central position of the production principle. A production principle is not branch or sector specific and is an inherent guarantee of exchange of information across the borders of a specific company or branch of industry. Also, the production principle provides qualitative information on the types of exposure and accident scenarios to be expected. Variations in the production principle are also an important source of solutions when alterations to the production form do not provide an adequate reduction in risks. The design analysis explores the possibilities of solutions related to the production process and can provide further assistance to the ‘call the expert’ category of control strategies of COSHH Essentials. In the field of occupational hygiene the production process is as yet hardly seen as a source of solutions or control measures. It is hoped to develop this approach further in work in The Netherlands on an occupational risk model which will be designed to link industries and processes to hazards and preventive measures, which will start shortly.
The results of the tests on the solution databank and its navigation system are encouraging and the software was characterized as very user friendly during the field test. The tests should be continued with a much larger number of solutions to see whether solutions are actually transferable between countries, branches and companies and whether the navigation system does help small companies achieve a safer workplace.
Acknowledgement—The Solbase project was supported by grants from the Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, Arbouw Amsterdam and the EU (project no. 1-SOC 95 202827 05F05).
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FOOTNOTES |
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* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: + 31 15 278 3820; e-mail: p.h.j.j.swuste{at}tbm.tudelft.nl Chemical control in small and medium enterprises: control banding and other approaches. Papers from a meeting in London, November 2002. Guest Editor: Paul Evans.
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